This Article
Right arrow Full Text
Right arrow Full Text (PDF)
Right arrow Alert me when this article is cited
Right arrow Alert me if a correction is posted
Services
Right arrow Similar articles in this journal
Right arrow Similar articles in PubMed
Right arrow Alert me to new issues of the journal
Right arrow Download to citation manager
Right arrowReprints and Permissions
Right arrow Copyright Information
Right arrow Books from ASM Press
Right arrow MicrobeWorld
Citing Articles
Right arrow Citing Articles via HighWire
Right arrow Citing Articles via Google Scholar
Google Scholar
Right arrow Articles by White, T. C.
Right arrow Articles by Bowden, R. A.
Right arrow Search for Related Content
PubMed
Right arrow PubMed Citation
Right arrow Articles by White, T. C.
Right arrow Articles by Bowden, R. A.

 Previous Article  |  Next Article 

Clinical Microbiology Reviews, April 1998, p. 382-402, Vol. 11, No. 2
0893-8512/98/$04.00+0
Copyright © 1998, American Society for Microbiology. All rights reserved.

Clinical, Cellular, and Molecular Factors That Contribute to Antifungal Drug Resistance

Theodore C. White,1,2,* Kieren A. Marr,3,4 and Raleigh A. Bowden3,5

Department of Pathobiology, School of Public Health and Community Medicine,1 Department of Medicine,4 and Department of Pediatrics,5 University of Washington, Seattle Biomedical Research Institute,2 and Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center,3 Seattle, Washington

In the past decade, the frequency of diagnosed fungal infections has risen sharply due to several factors, including the increase in the number of immunosuppressed patients resulting from the AIDS epidemic and treatments during and after organ and bone marrow transplants. Linked with the increase in fungal infections is a recent increase in the frequency with which these infections are recalcitrant to standard antifungal therapy. This review summarizes the factors that contribute to antifungal drug resistance on three levels: (i) clinical factors that result in the inability to successfully treat refractory disease; (ii) cellular factors associated with a resistant fungal strain; and (iii) molecular factors that are ultimately responsible for the resistance phenotype in the cell. Many of the clinical factors that contribute to resistance are associated with the immune status of the patient, with the pharmacology of the drugs, or with the degree or type of fungal infection present. At a cellular level, antifungal drug resistance can be the result of replacement of a susceptible strain with a more resistant strain or species or the alteration of an endogenous strain (by mutation or gene expression) to a resistant phenotype. The molecular mechanisms of resistance that have been identified to date in Candida albicans include overexpression of two types of efflux pumps, overexpression or mutation of the target enzyme, and alteration of other enzymes in the same biosynthetic pathway as the target enzyme. Since the study of antifungal drug resistance is relatively new, other factors that may also contribute to resistance are discussed.

* Corresponding author. Mailing address: Seattle Biomedical Research Institute, 4 Nickerson St., Ste. 200, Seattle, WA 98109-1651. Phone: (206) 284-8846, ext. 344. Fax: (206) 284-0313. E-mail: tedwhite{at}u.washington.edu.

Clinical Microbiology Reviews, April 1998, p. 382-402, Vol. 11, No. 2
0893-8512/98/$04.00+0
Copyright © 1998, American Society for Microbiology. All rights reserved.


This article has been cited by other articles:

  • Cannon, R. D., Lamping, E., Holmes, A. R., Niimi, K., Baret, P. V., Keniya, M. V., Tanabe, K., Niimi, M., Goffeau, A., Monk, B. C. (2009). Efflux-Mediated Antifungal Drug Resistance. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 22: 291-321 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
  • Tsao, S., Rahkhoodaee, F., Raymond, M. (2009). Relative Contributions of the Candida albicans ABC Transporters Cdr1p and Cdr2p to Clinical Azole Resistance. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 53: 1344-1352 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
  • Lamping, E., Ranchod, A., Nakamura, K., Tyndall, J. D. A., Niimi, K., Holmes, A. R., Niimi, M., Cannon, R. D. (2009). Abc1p Is a Multidrug Efflux Transporter That Tips the Balance in Favor of Innate Azole Resistance in Candida krusei. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 53: 354-369 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
  • Sauna, Z. E., Bohn, S. S., Rutledge, R., Dougherty, M. P., Cronin, S., May, L., Xia, D., Ambudkar, S. V., Golin, J. (2008). Mutations Define Cross-talk between the N-terminal Nucleotide-binding Domain and Transmembrane Helix-2 of the Yeast Multidrug Transporter Pdr5: POSSIBLE CONSERVATION OF A SIGNALING INTERFACE FOR COUPLING ATP HYDROLYSIS TO DRUG TRANSPORT. J. Biol. Chem. 283: 35010-35022 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
  • Hast, M. A., Beese, L. S. (2008). Structure of Protein Geranylgeranyltransferase-I from the Human Pathogen Candida albicans Complexed with a Lipid Substrate. J. Biol. Chem. 283: 31933-31940 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
  • Hoot, S. J., Oliver, B. G., White, T. C. (2008). Candida albicans UPC2 is transcriptionally induced in response to antifungal drugs and anaerobicity through Upc2p-dependent and -independent mechanisms. Microbiology 154: 2748-2756 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
  • Richards, T. S., Oliver, B. G., White, T. C. (2008). Micafungin activity against Candida albicans with diverse azole resistance phenotypes. J Antimicrob Chemother 62: 349-355 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
  • Monk, B. C., Goffeau, A. (2008). Outwitting Multidrug Resistance to Antifungals. Science 321: 367-369 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
  • Li, X.-C., Jacob, M. R., Khan, S. I., Ashfaq, M. K., Babu, K. S., Agarwal, A. K., ElSohly, H. N., Manly, S. P., Clark, A. M. (2008). Potent In Vitro Antifungal Activities of Naturally Occurring Acetylenic Acids. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 52: 2442-2448 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
  • Dunkel, N., Liu, T. T., Barker, K. S., Homayouni, R., Morschhauser, J., Rogers, P. D. (2008). A Gain-of-Function Mutation in the Transcription Factor Upc2p Causes Upregulation of Ergosterol Biosynthesis Genes and Increased Fluconazole Resistance in a Clinical Candida albicans Isolate. Eukaryot Cell 7: 1180-1190 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
  • Stergiopoulou, T., Meletiadis, J., Sein, T., Papaioannidou, P., Tsiouris, I., Roilides, E., Walsh, T. J. (2008). Isobolographic Analysis of Pharmacodynamic Interactions between Antifungal Agents and Ciprofloxacin against Candida albicans and Aspergillus fumigatus. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 52: 2196-2204 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
  • Cowen, L. E., Steinbach, W. J. (2008). Stress, Drugs, and Evolution: the Role of Cellular Signaling in Fungal Drug Resistance. Eukaryot Cell 7: 747-764 [Full Text]  
  • Znaidi, S., Weber, S., Zin Al-Abdin, O., Bomme, P., Saidane, S., Drouin, S., Lemieux, S., De Deken, X., Robert, F., Raymond, M. (2008). Genomewide Location Analysis of Candida albicans Upc2p, a Regulator of Sterol Metabolism and Azole Drug Resistance. Eukaryot Cell 7: 836-847 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
  • Manoharlal, R., Gaur, N. A., Panwar, S. L., Morschhauser, J., Prasad, R. (2008). Transcriptional Activation and Increased mRNA Stability Contribute to Overexpression of CDR1 in Azole-Resistant Candida albicans. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 52: 1481-1492 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
  • Dalle, F., Lafon, I., L'Ollivier, C., Ferrant, E., Sicard, P., Labruere, C., Jebrane, A., Laubriet, A., Vagner, O., Caillot, D., Bonnin, A. (2008). A prospective analysis of the genotypic diversity and dynamics of the Candida albicans colonizing flora in neutropenic patients with de novo acute leukemia. haematol 93: 581-587 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
  • Oliver, B. G., Silver, P. M., Marie, C., Hoot, S. J., Leyde, S. E., White, T. C. (2008). Tetracycline alters drug susceptibility in Candida albicans and other pathogenic fungi. Microbiology 154: 960-970 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
  • Li, Y., Sun, S., Guo, Q., Ma, L., Shi, C., Su, L., Li, H. (2008). In vitro interaction between azoles and cyclosporin A against clinical isolates of Candida albicans determined by the chequerboard method and time-kill curves. J Antimicrob Chemother 61: 577-585 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
  • Vogel, M., Hartmann, T., Koberle, M., Treiber, M., Autenrieth, I. B., Schumacher, U. K. (2008). Rifampicin induces MDR1 expression in Candida albicans. J Antimicrob Chemother 61: 541-547 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
  • Nakayama, H., Tanabe, K., Bard, M., Hodgson, W., Wu, S., Takemori, D., Aoyama, T., Kumaraswami, N. S., Metzler, L., Takano, Y., Chibana, H., Niimi, M. (2007). The Candida glabrata putative sterol transporter gene CgAUS1 protects cells against azoles in the presence of serum. J Antimicrob Chemother 60: 1264-1272 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
  • Oliver, B. G., Song, J. L., Choiniere, J. H., White, T. C. (2007). cis-Acting Elements within the Candida albicans ERG11 Promoter Mediate the Azole Response through Transcription Factor Upc2p. Eukaryot Cell 6: 2231-2239 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
  • Liu, T. T., Znaidi, S., Barker, K. S., Xu, L., Homayouni, R., Saidane, S., Morschhauser, J., Nantel, A., Raymond, M., Rogers, P. D. (2007). Genome-Wide Expression and Location Analyses of the Candida albicans Tac1p Regulon. Eukaryot Cell 6: 2122-2138 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
  • Cannon, R. D., Lamping, E., Holmes, A. R., Niimi, K., Tanabe, K., Niimi, M., Monk, B. C. (2007). Candida albicans drug resistance another way to cope with stress. Microbiology 153: 3211-3217 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
  • Coste, A., Selmecki, A., Forche, A., Diogo, D., Bougnoux, M.-E., d'Enfert, C., Berman, J., Sanglard, D. (2007). Genotypic Evolution of Azole Resistance Mechanisms in Sequential Candida albicans Isolates. Eukaryot Cell 6: 1889-1904 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
  • Lamping, E., Monk, B. C., Niimi, K., Holmes, A. R., Tsao, S., Tanabe, K., Niimi, M., Uehara, Y., Cannon, R. D. (2007). Characterization of Three Classes of Membrane Proteins Involved in Fungal Azole Resistance by Functional Hyperexpression in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Eukaryot Cell 6: 1150-1165 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
  • Veerman, E. C. I., Valentijn-Benz, M., Nazmi, K., Ruissen, A. L. A., Walgreen-Weterings, E., van Marle, J., Doust, A. B., van't Hof, W., Bolscher, J. G. M., Amerongen, A. V. N. (2007). Energy Depletion Protects Candida albicans against Antimicrobial Peptides by Rigidifying Its Cell Membrane. J. Biol. Chem. 282: 18831-18841 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
  • Cheng, S., Clancy, C. J., Nguyen, K. T., Clapp, W., Nguyen, M. H. (2007). A Candida albicans Petite Mutant Strain with Uncoupled Oxidative Phosphorylation Overexpresses MDR1 and Has Diminished Susceptibility to Fluconazole and Voriconazole. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 51: 1855-1858 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
  • Blystone, C. R., Furr, J., Lambright, C. S., Howdeshell, K. L., Ryan, B. C., Wilson, V. S., LeBlanc, G. A., Gray, L. E. Jr (2007). Prochloraz Inhibits Testosterone Production at Dosages below Those that Affect Androgen-Dependent Organ Weights or the Onset of Puberty in the Male Sprague Dawley Rat. Toxicol Sci 97: 65-74 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
  • Vandeputte, P., Tronchin, G., Berges, T., Hennequin, C., Chabasse, D., Bouchara, J.-P. (2007). Reduced Susceptibility to Polyenes Associated with a Missense Mutation in the ERG6 Gene in a Clinical Isolate of Candida glabrata with Pseudohyphal Growth. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 51: 982-990 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
  • Nett, J., Lincoln, L., Marchillo, K., Massey, R., Holoyda, K., Hoff, B., VanHandel, M., Andes, D. (2007). Putative Role of {beta}-1,3 Glucans in Candida albicans Biofilm Resistance. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 51: 510-520 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
  • Pfaller, M. A., Diekema, D. J. (2007). Epidemiology of Invasive Candidiasis: a Persistent Public Health Problem. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 20: 133-163 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
  • Rognon, B., Kozovska, Z., Coste, A. T., Pardini, G., Sanglard, D. (2006). Identification of promoter elements responsible for the regulation of MDR1 from Candida albicans, a major facilitator transporter involved in azole resistance. Microbiology 152: 3701-3722 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
  • Riggle, P. J., Kumamoto, C. A. (2006). Transcriptional Regulation of MDR1, Encoding a Drug Efflux Determinant, in Fluconazole-Resistant Candida albicans Strains through an Mcm1p Binding Site. Eukaryot Cell 5: 1957-1968 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
  • Benincasa, M., Scocchi, M., Pacor, S., Tossi, A., Nobili, D., Basaglia, G., Busetti, M., Gennaro, R. (2006). Fungicidal activity of five cathelicidin peptides against clinically isolated yeasts. J Antimicrob Chemother 58: 950-959 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
  • Onyewu, C., Afshari, N. A., Heitman, J. (2006). Calcineurin Promotes Infection of the Cornea by Candida albicans and Can Be Targeted To Enhance Fluconazole Therapy. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 50: 3963-3965 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
  • Khot, P. D., Suci, P. A., Miller, R. L., Nelson, R. D., Tyler, B. J. (2006). A Small Subpopulation of Blastospores in Candida albicans Biofilms Exhibit Resistance to Amphotericin B Associated with Differential Regulation of Ergosterol and {beta}-1,6-Glucan Pathway Genes. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 50: 3708-3716 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
  • Meletiadis, J., Chanock, S., Walsh, T. J. (2006). Human Pharmacogenomic Variations and Their Implications for Antifungal Efficacy. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 19: 763-787 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
  • Pfaller, M. A., Diekema, D. J., Colombo, A. L., Kibbler, C., Ng, K. P., Gibbs, D. L., Newell, V. A., the Global Antifungal Surveillance Group, (2006). Candida rugosa, an Emerging Fungal Pathogen with Resistance to Azoles: Geographic and Temporal Trends from the ARTEMIS DISK Antifungal Surveillance Program.. J. Clin. Microbiol. 44: 3578-3582 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
  • Katiyar, S., Pfaller, M., Edlind, T. (2006). Candida albicans and Candida glabrata Clinical Isolates Exhibiting Reduced Echinocandin Susceptibility.. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 50: 2892-2894 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
  • Hiller, D., Stahl, S., Morschhauser, J. (2006). Multiple cis-Acting Sequences Mediate Upregulation of the MDR1 Efflux Pump in a Fluconazole-Resistant Clinical Candida albicans Isolate.. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 50: 2300-2308 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
  • Andes, D., Forrest, A., Lepak, A., Nett, J., Marchillo, K., Lincoln, L. (2006). Impact of Antimicrobial Dosing Regimen on Evolution of Drug Resistance In Vivo: Fluconazole and Candida albicans.. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 50: 2374-2383 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
  • Andes, D., Lepak, A., Nett, J., Lincoln, L., Marchillo, K. (2006). In Vivo Fluconazole Pharmacodynamics and Resistance Development in a Previously Susceptible Candida albicans Population Examined by Microbiologic and Transcriptional Profiling.. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 50: 2384-2394 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
  • Saini, P., Gaur, N. A., Prasad, R. (2006). Chimeras of the ABC drug transporter Cdr1p reveal functional indispensability of transmembrane domains and nucleotide-binding domains, but transmembrane segment 12 is replaceable with the corresponding homologous region of the non-drug transporter Cdr3p.. Microbiology 152: 1559-1573 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
  • Pfaller, M. A., Diekema, D. J., Sheehan, D. J. (2006). Interpretive Breakpoints for Fluconazole and Candida Revisited: a Blueprint for the Future of Antifungal Susceptibility Testing. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 19: 435-447 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
  • Lepak, A., Nett, J., Lincoln, L., Marchillo, K., Andes, D. (2006). Time Course of Microbiologic Outcome and Gene Expression in Candida albicans during and following In Vitro and In Vivo Exposure to Fluconazole.. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 50: 1311-1319 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
  • Quan, H., Cao, Y.-Y., Xu, Z., Zhao, J.-X., Gao, P.-H., Qin, X.-F., Jiang, Y.-Y. (2006). Potent In Vitro Synergism of Fluconazole and Berberine Chloride against Clinical Isolates of Candida albicans Resistant to Fluconazole. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 50: 1096-1099 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
  • Kojima, K., Bahn, Y.-S., Heitman, J. (2006). Calcineurin, Mpk1 and Hog1 MAPK pathways independently control fludioxonil antifungal sensitivity in Cryptococcus neoformans.. Microbiology 152: 591-604 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
  • Burgstaller, W. (2006). Thermodynamic boundary conditions suggest that a passive transport step suffices for citrate excretion in Aspergillus and Penicillium.. Microbiology 152: 887-893 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
  • Biondo, C., Messina, L., Bombaci, M., Mancuso, G., Midiri, A., Beninati, C., Cusumano, V., Gerace, E., Papasergi, S., Teti, G. (2005). Characterization of Two Novel Cryptococcal Mannoproteins Recognized by Immune Sera. Infect. Immun. 73: 7348-7355 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
  • Chabrier-Rosello, Y., Foster, T. H., Perez-Nazario, N., Mitra, S., Haidaris, C. G. (2005). Sensitivity of Candida albicans Germ Tubes and Biofilms to Photofrin-Mediated Phototoxicity. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 49: 4288-4295 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
  • Pina-Vaz, C., Rodrigues, A. G., Costa-de-Oliveira, S., Ricardo, E., Mardh, P.-A. (2005). Potent synergic effect between ibuprofen and azoles on Candida resulting from blockade of efflux pumps as determined by FUN-1 staining and flow cytometry. J Antimicrob Chemother 56: 678-685 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
  • Cowen, L. E., Lindquist, S. (2005). Hsp90 Potentiates the Rapid Evolution of New Traits: Drug Resistance in Diverse Fungi. Science 309: 2185-2189 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
  • te Dorsthorst, D. T. A., Verweij, P. E., Meis, J. F. G. M., Mouton, J. W. (2005). Relationship between In Vitro Activities of Amphotericin B and Flucytosine and pH for Clinical Yeast and Mold Isolates. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 49: 3341-3346 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
  • Prasad, T., Saini, P., Gaur, N. A., Vishwakarma, R. A., Khan, L. A., Haq, Q. M. R., Prasad, R. (2005). Functional Analysis of CaIPT1, a Sphingolipid Biosynthetic Gene Involved in Multidrug Resistance and Morphogenesis of Candida albicans. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 49: 3442-3452 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
  • Ducker, C. E., Upson, J. J., French, K. J., Smith, C. D. (2005). Two N-Myristoyltransferase Isozymes Play Unique Roles in Protein Myristoylation, Proliferation, and Apoptosis. Mol Cancer Res 3: 463-476 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
  • Harry, J. B., Oliver, B. G., Song, J. L., Silver, P. M., Little, J. T., Choiniere, J., White, T. C. (2005). Drug-Induced Regulation of the MDR1 Promoter in Candida albicans. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 49: 2785-2792 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
  • Osborne, C. S., Leitner, I., Favre, B., Ryder, N. S. (2005). Amino Acid Substitution in Trichophyton rubrum Squalene Epoxidase Associated with Resistance to Terbinafine. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 49: 2840-2844 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
  • Maligie, M. A., Selitrennikoff, C. P. (2005). Cryptococcus neoformans Resistance to Echinocandins: (1,3){beta}-Glucan Synthase Activity Is Sensitive to Echinocandins. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 49: 2851-2856 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
  • Saini, P., Prasad, T., Gaur, N. A., Shukla, S., Jha, S., Komath, S. S., Khan, L. A., Haq, Q. Mohd. R., Prasad, R. (2005). Alanine scanning of transmembrane helix 11 of Cdr1p ABC antifungal efflux pump of Candida albicans: identification of amino acid residues critical for drug efflux. J Antimicrob Chemother 56: 77-86 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
  • Mitchell, M., Hudspeth, M., Wright, A. (2005). Flow Cytometry Susceptibility Testing for the Antifungal Caspofungin. J. Clin. Microbiol. 43: 2586-2589 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
  • MacPherson, S., Akache, B., Weber, S., De Deken, X., Raymond, M., Turcotte, B. (2005). Candida albicans Zinc Cluster Protein Upc2p Confers Resistance to Antifungal Drugs and Is an Activator of Ergosterol Biosynthetic Genes. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 49: 1745-1752 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
  • Helmick, R. A., Fletcher, A. E., Gardner, A. M., Gessner, C. R., Hvitved, A. N., Gustin, M. C., Gardner, P. R. (2005). Imidazole Antibiotics Inhibit the Nitric Oxide Dioxygenase Function of Microbial Flavohemoglobin. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 49: 1837-1843 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
  • Ramage, G., Saville, S. P., Thomas, D. P., Lopez-Ribot, J. L. (2005). Candida Biofilms: an Update. Eukaryot Cell 4: 633-638 [Full Text]  
  • Kohler, G. A., Gong, X., Bentink, S., Theiss, S., Pagani, G. M., Agabian, N., Hedstrom, L. (2005). The Functional Basis of Mycophenolic Acid Resistance in Candida albicans IMP Dehydrogenase. J. Biol. Chem. 280: 11295-11302 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
  • Toenjes, K. A., Munsee, S. M., Ibrahim, A. S., Jeffrey, R., Edwards, J. E. Jr., Johnson, D. I. (2005). Small-Molecule Inhibitors of the Budded-to-Hyphal-Form Transition in the Pathogenic Yeast Candida albicans. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 49: 963-972 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
  • Lo, H.-J., Wang, J.-S., Lin, C.-Y., Chen, C.-G., Hsiao, T.-Y., Hsu, C.-T., Su, C.-L., Fann, M.-J., Ching, Y.-T., Yang, Y.-L. (2005). Efg1 Involved in Drug Resistance by Regulating the Expression of ERG3 in Candida albicans. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 49: 1213-1215 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
  • Carrasco, L., Ramos, M., Galisteo, R., Pisa, D., Fresno, M., Gonzalez, M. E. (2005). Isolation of Candida famata from a Patient with Acute Zonal Occult Outer Retinopathy. J. Clin. Microbiol. 43: 635-640 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
  • Monk, B. C., Niimi, K., Lin, S., Knight, A., Kardos, T. B., Cannon, R. D., Parshot, R., King, A., Lun, D., Harding, D. R. K. (2005). Surface-Active Fungicidal D-Peptide Inhibitors of the Plasma Membrane Proton Pump That Block Azole Resistance. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 49: 57-70 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
  • Burn, A. K., Fothergill, A. W., Kirkpatrick, W. R., Coco, B. J., Patterson, T. F., McCarthy, D. I., Rinaldi, M. G., Redding, S. W. (2004). Comparison of Antifungal Susceptibilities to Fluconazole and Voriconazole of Oral Candida glabrata Isolates from Head and Neck Radiation Patients. J. Clin. Microbiol. 42: 5846-5848 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
  • Niimi, M., Niimi, K., Takano, Y., Holmes, A. R., Fischer, F. J., Uehara, Y., Cannon, R. D. (2004). Regulated overexpression of CDR1 in Candida albicans confers multidrug resistance. J Antimicrob Chemother 54: 999-1006 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
  • Silver, P. M., Oliver, B. G., White, T. C. (2004). Role of Candida albicans Transcription Factor Upc2p in Drug Resistance and Sterol Metabolism. Eukaryot Cell 3: 1391-1397 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
  • Anderson, J. B., Sirjusingh, C., Ricker, N. (2004). Haploidy, Diploidy and Evolution of Antifungal Drug Resistance in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Genetics 168: 1915-1923 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
  • da Silva Ferreira, M. E., Capellaro, J. L., dos Reis Marques, E., Malavazi, I., Perlin, D., Park, S., Anderson, J. B., Colombo, A. L., Arthington-Skaggs, B. A., Goldman, M. H. S., Goldman, G. H. (2004). In Vitro Evolution of Itraconazole Resistance in Aspergillus fumigatus Involves Multiple Mechanisms of Resistance. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 48: 4405-4413 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
  • Gao, H., Pennesi, M. E., Shah, K., Qiao, X., Hariprasad, S. M., Mieler, W. F., Wu, S. M., Holz, E. R. (2004). Intravitreal Voriconazole: An Electroretinographic and Histopathologic Study. Arch Ophthalmol 122: 1687-1692 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
  • Andes, D., Nett, J., Oschel, P., Albrecht, R., Marchillo, K., Pitula, A. (2004). Development and Characterization of an In Vivo Central Venous Catheter Candida albicans Biofilm Model. Infect. Immun. 72: 6023-6031 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
  • Barchiesi, F., Spreghini, E., Maracci, M., Fothergill, A. W., Baldassarri, I., Rinaldi, M. G., Scalise, G. (2004). In Vitro Activities of Voriconazole in Combination with Three Other Antifungal Agents against Candida glabrata. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 48: 3317-3322 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
  • Pascon, R. C., Ganous, T. M., Kingsbury, J. M., Cox, G. M., McCusker, J. H. (2004). Cryptococcus neoformans methionine synthase: expression analysis and requirement for virulence. Microbiology 150: 3013-3023 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
  • Te Dorsthorst, D. T. A., Mouton, J. W., van den Beukel, C. J. P., van der Lee, H. A. L., Meis, J. F. G. M., Verweij, P. E. (2004). Effect of pH on the In Vitro Activities of Amphotericin B, Itraconazole, and Flucytosine against Aspergillus Isolates. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 48: 3147-3150 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
  • Kaufman, D., Fairchild, K. D. (2004). Clinical Microbiology of Bacterial and Fungal Sepsis in Very-Low-Birth-Weight Infants. Clin. Microbiol. Rev. 17: 638-680 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
  • De Deken, X., Raymond, M. (2004). Constitutive Activation of the PDR16 Promoter in a Candida albicans Azole-Resistant Clinical Isolate Overexpressing CDR1 and CDR2. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 48: 2700-2703 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
  • Hooshdaran, M. Z., Barker, K. S., Hilliard, G. M., Kusch, H., Morschhauser, J., Rogers, P. D. (2004). Proteomic Analysis of Azole Resistance in Candida albicans Clinical Isolates. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 48: 2733-2735 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
  • Shukla, S., Ambudkar, S. V., Prasad, R. (2004). Substitution of threonine-1351 in the multidrug transporter Cdr1p of Candida albicans results in hypersusceptibility to antifungal agents and threonine-1351 is essential for synergic effects of calcineurin inhibitor FK520. J Antimicrob Chemother 54: 38-45 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
  • Kirby, A, Chapman, C, Hassan, C, Burnie, J (2004). The diagnosis of hepatosplenic candidiasis by DNA analysis of tissue biopsy and serum. J. Clin. Pathol. 57: 764-765 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
  • Dodgson, A. R., Dodgson, K. J., Pujol, C., Pfaller, M. A., Soll, D. R. (2004). Clade-Specific Flucytosine Resistance Is Due to a Single Nucleotide Change in the FUR1 Gene of Candida albicans. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 48: 2223-2227 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
  • Frade, J. P., Warnock, D. W., Arthington-Skaggs, B. A. (2004). Rapid Quantification of Drug Resistance Gene Expression in Candida albicans by Reverse Transcriptase LightCycler PCR and Fluorescent Probe Hybridization. J. Clin. Microbiol. 42: 2085-2093 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
  • Wei, G.-X., Bobek, L. A. (2004). In vitro synergic antifungal effect of MUC7 12-mer with histatin-5 12-mer or miconazole. J Antimicrob Chemother 53: 750-758 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
  • Song, J. L., Harry, J. B., Eastman, R. T., Oliver, B. G., White, T. C. (2004). The Candida albicans Lanosterol 14-{alpha}-Demethylase (ERG11) Gene Promoter Is Maximally Induced after Prolonged Growth with Antifungal Drugs. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 48: 1136-1144 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
  • Niimi, K., Harding, D. R. K., Parshot, R., King, A., Lun, D. J., Decottignies, A., Niimi, M., Lin, S., Cannon, R. D., Goffeau, A., Monk, B. C. (2004). Chemosensitization of Fluconazole Resistance in Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Pathogenic Fungi by a D-Octapeptide Derivative. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 48: 1256-1271 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
  • Pujol, C., Pfaller, M. A., Soll, D. R. (2004). Flucytosine Resistance Is Restricted to a Single Genetic Clade of Candida albicans. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 48: 262-266 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
  • Leber, R., Fuchsbichler, S., Klobucnikova, V., Schweighofer, N., Pitters, E., Wohlfarter, K., Lederer, M., Landl, K., Ruckenstuhl, C., Hapala, I., Turnowsky, F. (2003). Molecular Mechanism of Terbinafine Resistance in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Antimicrob. Agents Chemother. 47: 3890-3900 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
  • Majoros, L., Kardos, G., Belak, A., Maraz, A., Asztalos, L., Csanky, E., Barta, Z., Szabo, B. (2003). Restriction Enzyme Analysis of Ribosomal DNA Shows that Candida inconspicua Clinical Isolates Can Be Misidentified as Candida norvegensis with Traditional Diagnostic Procedures. J. Clin. Microbiol. 41: 5250-5253 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
  • Macarthur, D.J., Jacques, N.A. (2003). Proteome Analysis of Oral Pathogens. JDR 82: 870-876 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
  • Meletiadis, J., te Dorsthorst, D. T. A., Verweij, P. E. (2003). Use of Turbidimetric Growth Curves for Early Determination of Antifungal Drug Resistance of Filamentous Fungi. J. Clin. Microbiol. 41: 4718-4725 [Abstract] [Full Text]  
  • Bagg, J, Sweeney, M P, Lewis, M A., Jackson, M S, Coleman, D, Mosaid, A A., Baxter, W, McEndrick, S, McHugh, S (2003). High prevalence of non-albicans yeasts and detection of anti-fungal resistance in the oral flora of patients with advanced cancer. Palliat Med 17: 477-481 [Abstract]  


Copyright © 2009 by the American Society for Microbiology.   For an alternate route to Journals.ASM.org, visit: http://intl-journals.asm.org | More Info»