Skip to main content
  • ASM
    • Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy
    • Applied and Environmental Microbiology
    • Clinical Microbiology Reviews
    • Clinical and Vaccine Immunology
    • EcoSal Plus
    • Eukaryotic Cell
    • Infection and Immunity
    • Journal of Bacteriology
    • Journal of Clinical Microbiology
    • Journal of Microbiology & Biology Education
    • Journal of Virology
    • mBio
    • Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews
    • Microbiology Resource Announcements
    • Microbiology Spectrum
    • Molecular and Cellular Biology
    • mSphere
    • mSystems
  • Log in
  • My alerts
  • My Cart

Main menu

  • Home
  • Articles
    • Latest Articles
    • COVID-19 Special Collection
    • Archive
  • For Authors
    • Submit a Manuscript
    • Scope
    • Editorial Policy
    • Submission, Review, & Publication Processes
    • Organization and Format
    • Errata, Author Corrections
    • Illustrations and Tables
    • Nomenclature
    • Abbreviations and Conventions
    • Ethics Resources and Policies
  • About the Journal
    • About CMR
    • Editor in Chief
    • Editorial Board
    • For Reviewers
    • For the Media
    • For Librarians
    • For Advertisers
    • Alerts
    • RSS
    • FAQ
  • Subscribe
    • Members
    • Institutions
  • ASM
    • Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy
    • Applied and Environmental Microbiology
    • Clinical Microbiology Reviews
    • Clinical and Vaccine Immunology
    • EcoSal Plus
    • Eukaryotic Cell
    • Infection and Immunity
    • Journal of Bacteriology
    • Journal of Clinical Microbiology
    • Journal of Microbiology & Biology Education
    • Journal of Virology
    • mBio
    • Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews
    • Microbiology Resource Announcements
    • Microbiology Spectrum
    • Molecular and Cellular Biology
    • mSphere
    • mSystems

User menu

  • Log in
  • My alerts
  • My Cart

Search

  • Advanced search
Clinical Microbiology Reviews
publisher-logosite-logo

Advanced Search

  • Home
  • Articles
    • Latest Articles
    • COVID-19 Special Collection
    • Archive
  • For Authors
    • Submit a Manuscript
    • Scope
    • Editorial Policy
    • Submission, Review, & Publication Processes
    • Organization and Format
    • Errata, Author Corrections
    • Illustrations and Tables
    • Nomenclature
    • Abbreviations and Conventions
    • Ethics Resources and Policies
  • About the Journal
    • About CMR
    • Editor in Chief
    • Editorial Board
    • For Reviewers
    • For the Media
    • For Librarians
    • For Advertisers
    • Alerts
    • RSS
    • FAQ
  • Subscribe
    • Members
    • Institutions
Review

Cryptococcus gattii Infections

Sharon C.-A. Chen, Wieland Meyer, Tania C. Sorrell
Sharon C.-A. Chen
aMarie Bashir Institute for Infectious Diseases and Biosecurity, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
bCentre for Infectious Diseases and Microbiology, Westmead Millennium Institute, Westmead, NSW, Australia
cWestern Clinical School, Sydney Medical School, University of Sydney, Westmead, NSW, Australia
dInstitute of Clinical Microbiology and Medical Research, Westmead, NSW, Australia
  • Find this author on Google Scholar
  • Find this author on PubMed
  • Search for this author on this site
Wieland Meyer
aMarie Bashir Institute for Infectious Diseases and Biosecurity, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
bCentre for Infectious Diseases and Microbiology, Westmead Millennium Institute, Westmead, NSW, Australia
cWestern Clinical School, Sydney Medical School, University of Sydney, Westmead, NSW, Australia
eMolecular Mycology Research Laboratory, Department of Infectious Diseases, Westmead Hospital, Western Sydney Local Health District, Westmead, NSW, Australia
  • Find this author on Google Scholar
  • Find this author on PubMed
  • Search for this author on this site
Tania C. Sorrell
aMarie Bashir Institute for Infectious Diseases and Biosecurity, University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
bCentre for Infectious Diseases and Microbiology, Westmead Millennium Institute, Westmead, NSW, Australia
cWestern Clinical School, Sydney Medical School, University of Sydney, Westmead, NSW, Australia
  • Find this author on Google Scholar
  • Find this author on PubMed
  • Search for this author on this site
  • For correspondence: tania.sorrell@sydney.edu.au
DOI: 10.1128/CMR.00126-13
  • Article
  • Figures & Data
  • Info & Metrics
  • PDF
Loading

Article Figures & Data

Figures

  • Tables
  • Figure1
    • Open in new tab
    • Download powerpoint
  • Figure2
    • Open in new tab
    • Download powerpoint
  • Figure3
    • Open in new tab
    • Download powerpoint
  • FIG 1
    • Open in new tab
    • Download powerpoint
    FIG 1

    Rooted neighbor-joining tree inferred from the concatenated MLST typing scheme sequences (CAP59, GPD1, LAC1, SOD1, URA5, and PLB1 genes and IGS) of 10 strains of each major C. gattii molecular type rooted with the standard strains of the three major C. neoformans molecular types. Numbers on branches are bootstrap support values obtained from 1,000 pseudoreplicates using the program MEGA version 5.05. Numbers in the white boxes indicate estimated diversion times based on the 10 genetic concatenated loci (ACT1, LAC1, IDE1, ITS1/2, IGS, PLB1, RPB1, RPB2, TEF1, and URA5), generated with the program BEAST.

  • FIG 2
    • Open in new tab
    • Download powerpoint
    FIG 2

    Identification of the major molecular types within C. gattii. (A) PCR fingerprinting generated with the primer M13; (B) AFLP profiles generated with the 6-carboxyfluorescein (FAM) label AC+G kit; (C) PLB1 gene RFLP profiles identified via digestion with AvaI; (D) URA5 gene RFLP profiles identified via double digestion with Sau96I and HhaI; (E) PLB1 gene hyperbranched rolling-circle amplification; (F) MALDI-TOF MS profiles obtained from the reference strains of each major molecular type.

  • FIG 3
    • Open in new tab
    • Download powerpoint
    FIG 3

    Distribution of the four major molecular types of C. gattii identified among a total of 980 clinical/veterinary and environmental global isolates. Shown is the distribution of the four major molecular types of C. gattii, combining clinical/veterinary (n = 615) and environmental (n = 365) isolates (top) from North America (including Mexico) (n = 162), South America (n = 367), and Europe (n = 44) (middle) and from Africa (n = 64), Asia (n = 78), and Australasia (n = 265) (bottom).

  • FIG 4
    • Open in new tab
    • Download powerpoint
    FIG 4

    Global distribution of the four major molecular types of C. gattii, based on 980 isolates.

  • FIG 5
    • Open in new tab
    • Download powerpoint
    FIG 5

    Percentages of 256 clinical isolates obtained from immunocompetent and immunocompromised patients (HIV positive) and from patients with other risk factors per major molecular type, identified by URA5 RFLP analysis, PCR fingerprinting, or AFLP analysis, for which clinical data were available. Other risk factors are alcoholism, corticosteroid use, disorder T immunity, diabetes, leukemia, systemic lupus erythematosus, transplant, and tumor.

  • FIG 6
    • Open in new tab
    • Download powerpoint
    FIG 6

    Chest X ray of a patient with a large mass lesion in the right lower lobe. Bronchoscopy and collection of bronchoalveolar lavage fluid showed multiple encapsulated yeasts upon cytological examination, and a culture grew Cryptococcus gattii. (Reprinted from reference 388 with permission of the publisher. Copyright 2013 UpToDate, Inc. [www.uptodate.com].)

  • FIG 7
    • Open in new tab
    • Download powerpoint
    FIG 7

    Computerized tomographic scan of brain showing a large mass lesion in the left cerebellar hemisphere (indicated by arrow). A provisional diagnosis of a cerebral neoplasm was made. Excision biopsy of the lesion showed encapsulated yeasts, and Cryptococcus gattii was isolated in culture.

Tables

  • Figures
  • TABLE 1

    Concordance of different schemes used for molecular typing of Cryptococcus gattii

    C. gattii serotypePCR fingerprinting molecular type (40, 77)AFLP genotype (33)URA5 RFLP type (40)PLB1 RFLP type (41)ITS genotype (342)IGS genotype (31, 350) MLST type (43)
    B/CVGIAFLP4A/AFLP4BVGI (SH5)A5ITS3/ITS74VGI
    B/CVGIIAFLP6VGII (SH6)A6ITS43VGII
    B/CVGIIIAFLP5A/AFLP5B/AFLP5CVGIII (SH7)A7ITS55VGIII
    B/CVGIVAFLP7VGIV (SH8)A8ITS66VGIV
  • TABLE 2

    Standard/reference strains for Cryptococcus gattii strain typing a

    C. gattii PCR fingerprinting molecular type (reference) and AFLP genotype (reference)CBS strain designationATCC strain designationFGS strain designationWM strain designationCMRVS strain designationOther strain designation(s)MAT type and serotypeDescriptionReference(s)
    VGI (40) and AFLP4 (33)CBS 10078ATCC MYA-456010419WM 17970298Bryon, H33.1, MH56αB1993, Sydney, NSW, Australia; clinical, CSF, HIV negative; isolated by Sharon C.-A. Chen 40, 154
    CBS 6289ATCC 32269 WM 01.124 MUCL 30449, RV 20186, CBS 8273aB1966, Kinshasa, Congo; clinical, CSF; isolated by E. Gatti and R. Eeckels; type strain of C. neoformans var. gattii 199
    CBS 10510 WM 276 TCS, SC1αB1993, Mt. Annan National Park, NSW, Australia; environmental, Eucalyptus tereticornis woody debris; isolated by Tania C. Sorrell and Sharon C.-A. Chen; genome sequence strain 40
    VGII (40) and AFLP6 (22)CBS 10082ATCC MYA-456110420WM 1787030249435, Colter, IFM 50894αB1991, Sydney, NSW Australia; clinical, CSF, HIV negative; isolated by Sharon C.-A. Chen 40, 154
    CBS 10514 WM 02.32 CDC R265αB2001, Duncan, Vancouver Island, BC, Canada; clinical, bronchial wash specimen; isolated by British Columbia CDC; highly virulent Vancouver Island outbreak strain of VGIIa; genome sequence strain 38
    VGIII (40) and AFLP5 (22)CBS 10081ATCC MYA-456210421WM 17570299WM 161, E698, 689, TP 0689, D1.13HαB1992, Blind Recreation Center/Park Boulevard UPAS Street, San Diego, CA, USA; environmental, Eucalyptus species woody debris; isolated by Tania Pfeiffer and David Ellis 40, 100
    CBS 6955ATCC 3260810424WM 01.125 DBVPG 6225, WM 2220, MUCL 30454, NIH 191, CBS 6916aCBefore 1970, San Fernando, CA, USA; clinical, CSF 2
    VGIV (40) and AFLP7 (56)CBS 10101ATCC MYA-456310422WM 77970300King Cheetah, IFM 50896αC1994, Johannesburg, South Africa; veterinary, cheetah; isolated by Valerie Davis 40, 389
    • ↵a Adapted from reference 43.

  • TABLE 3

    Comparison of cellular functions and virulence of Cryptococcus gattii and Cryptococcus neoformans by using deletion mutants a

    Gene(s) of interest, productFunctionPhenotypeRequired for virulence, modelReference(s)
    SOD1, superoxide dismutaseCytoplasmic antioxidantRequired for production of virulence factors urease, PLB, and laccase in C. gattii but not C. neoformans Yes, in BALB/c mouse intravenous inoculation model and in A/JCr mouse inhalational model of C. neoformans 390
    SOD2, superoxide dismutaseMitochondrial antioxidantRequired for growth at 37°C in 20% but not in 1.3% oxygenYes, for C. gattii BALB/c mouse inhalation and i.v. inoculation model; C. neoformans was not tested 391
    TPS1 and TPS2, trehalose-6-phosphate synthaseTrehalose biosynthesis; trehalose functions as an antioxidant and stress protectantRequired for thermotolerance, capsule and melanin production, mating, and cell wall integrity in C. gattii and thermotolerance in C. neoformans Yes, for C. gattii Caenorhabditis elegans (worm) and A/JCr mouse inhalational models; TSP1 but not TSP2 is required for virulence in C. neoformans 392, 393
    PKA1, cAMP-activated protein kinase ASignal transduction pathway regulatorRequired for capsule production in C. gattii and mating and capsule and melanin production in C. neoformans C. gattii was not tested; yes, for virulence of C. neoformans in BALB/c mouse inhalational model and immunosuppressed rabbit CSF inoculation model 394, 395
    PKA2, cAMP-activated protein kinase ASignal transduction pathway regulatorRequired for mating and capsule and melanin production in C. gattii but not C. neoformans Not tested 394, 395
    PLC1 Signal transduction pathway regulatorRegulates growth at 37°C and melanin and PLB production in C. neoformans through the PKC/MAPK pathway (see below)Yes, in C. neoformans BALB/c mouse inhalational model 396
    MPK1 Signal transduction pathway regulatorRegulates melanin, capsule production, and cell wall integrity in C. gattii and thermotolerance and cell wall integrity at 37°C in C. neoformans Yes, in C. gattii (BALB/c inhalational model) and in C. neoformans i.v. DBA/2 complement-deficient mouse model 397
    STE12αTranscription factorRegulates melanin, mating, and ecological fitness in C. gattii and mating and capsule size in C. neoformans Yes, in C. gattii but not C. neoformans 398, 399
    GAT1 GATA transcription factorRegulates nitrogen utilizationYes, in C. gattii but not in C. neoformans BALB/c intrapharyngeal instillation model 400
    CNA1, calcineurin catalytic subunit (A)Subunit of the heterodimer calcineurin, a Ca2+ calmodulin-activated serine-threonine-specific protein phosphataseIn C. gattii, regulates thermotolerance (37°C) (strains differ) and is required for plasma membrane integrity, tolerance to fluconazole, and optimal growth in the presence of Ca2+ Li+, with no role in melanin and a minor role in capsule production; in C. neoformans, lesser effect of Ca2+ and not required for fluconazole tolerance inYes, in C. gattii (molecular type-dependent) G. mellonella (wax moth) larva and A/JCr mouse inhalational models and also in C. neoformans rabbit intracisternal inoculation and BALB/c mouse i.v. inoculation models 156, 401, 402
    • ↵a Note the functional divergence between C. gattii and C. neoformans for all genes analyzed, with an evolutionary switch of functions of PKA1 and -2. cAMP, cyclic AMP; PKC, protein kinase C; MAPK, mitogen-activated protein kinase; PLB, phospholipase B.

  • TABLE 4

    Epidemiology and clinical features of major case series of Cryptococcus gattii infection c

    ReferenceLocationNo. of patientsSite(s) of infectionHost status(es)Mortality rate (%)Induction antifungal therapyComplication(s) (no. of cases)Sequela(e) (no. or % of survivors with sequela)
    218 PNG3 (all children)MeningesIC33cAMB (6 wk)Abnormal mentation (2), papilledema (2), retinal hemorrhage (1)None
    213 PNG7 (1 child)MeningesIC43cAMB + 5FC (mean, 7 wk)Papilledema (3), blurred vision (3), deafness (1), seizures (1)Not specified
    208 PNG82MeningesICNot statedNot specifiedVisual loss in 52.6% of survivorsVisual loss (52.6%)
    209 PNG88MeningesIC34.1Not specifiedNot specifiedNot specified
    211 PNG49MeningesIC22.4cAMB + 5FC; total dose of cAMB ranged from 890 mg to 2.4 gPapilledema (26), blurred vision (25), abnormal mentation (12), cranial nerve palsy (10), seizures (7), raised ICP (3/6)Visual loss (31%)
    204 NT, Australia18CNS +/− lungPrimarily ICNot specified for C. gattii but 9.1 overallcAMB (range, 0.85 to 5 g)Not specifiedNot specified
    27 Australia26CNS (26)IC15cAMB + 5FC (median, 2.4 g cAMB)Papilledema (13), abnormal mentation (8), focal signs (1), seizures (10), hydrocephalus (9)Moderate-to-severe neurological sequelae (8 patients)
    28 Australia20Meninges (17), brain (7), lungs (13)IC0Not specified for C. gattii Hydrocephalus (4), focal signs (5)Neurological sequelae (7 patients)
    29 Australia47Meninges (27), brain (10), lung (30), skin (3)IC (41), IS (5)Not specified Hydrocephalus (5)Not specified
    215 NT, Australia12CNS +/− lung (8), lung only (4)Not specified33cAMB + 5FC (avg, 43 days)Hydrocephalus (at least 3)Not specified
    130 Australia86CNS +/− lung (73), lung only (10)IC (62), IS (24)13.6AMB + 5FC (57 patients) (6 wk), FLU (9) (4 wk), AMB + 5FC (7) (2 wk), FLU (2) (not specified)Papilledema (9), abnormal mentation (18), cerebellar deficit (10), limb weakness (6), seizures (5), cranial nerve palsy (13), raised ICP (31; 42%), hydrocephalus (22; 30%)Neurological sequelae (20; 27%) a
    98 South Africa46Mostly meningesHIV (29), non-HIV/unknown (18)35.6AMB (14), FLU (32), AMB + FLU (5)
    96 Botswana29MeningesHIV (29)17AMB (14 days)
    131 Canada3Lung + CNS (1), lung only (2)IC0AMB (1), FLU (2)NoneNone
    198 Canada218Lung only (167), CNS only (17), CNS + lung (22), other (2)IC (148), IS (70)8.7 Not specifiedNot specified
    230 Canada38 in case-control study b Meninges (10), lung (28)IC (not stated), IS (not stated)
    132 USA (Pacific Northwest states)96; 83 outbreak infections, 13 nonoutbreak infectionsMeninges (29), Brain (6), lung (31)IC (62), IS (34)33Not specifiedPapilledema (3/49), blurred vision (9/49), seizures (4/49)
    248 USA (non-Pacific Northwest states)25CNS (19), lung (9), CNS only (12), lung only (12), blood (3), leg (1)IC (20), IS (5)24AMB + 5FC (17 patients), AMB (1), FLU (1), unknown (2)Papilloedema (2), blurred vision (8), seizures (1), cranial nerve palsy (5/13), hydrocephalus (4/18)Not specified
    239 Vietnam10MeningesHIV negative10cAMB + 5FC (Vietnamese national guidelines)Papilledema (5), abnormal mentation (1), blurred vision (4), focal signs (5)Overall, blindness in 6 patients, deafness in 1 patient, and neurological deficits in 14 patients, but data were not stratified by infecting Cryptococcus species
    206 Brazil8UnknownIC (7), IS (HIV infection) (1) Not stratified by cryptococcal speciesNot stratified by cryptococcal species
    220 Brazil11CNS alone (9), CNS and lung (2)IC18.2AMB (7), AMB + 5FC (5)Hydrocephalus (6)Blindness (4 patients)
    222 Brazil21MeningesHIV (2), non-HIV (19)
    221 Brazil25MeningesHIV (4), non-HIV (21)44
    256 Brazil7 (previously unreported cases only)MeningesHIV (1), IC (6)14.3AMB only (5), AMB + FLU (2)
    251 Brazil4MeningesHIV (2)50
    • ↵a Cranial nerve lesions, epilepsy, memory impairment, and visual field loss.

    • ↵b The case-control study identified oral steroid use, pneumonia, and other lung conditions to be associated with infection. In population comparisons, cases were more likely to be >50 years of age, to be current smokers, to have HIV infection, or to have a history of invasive cancer.

    • ↵c Abbreviations: AMB, amphotericin B formulation; cAMB, conventional amphotericin B deoxycholate; CNS, central nervous system; 5FC, 5-flucytosine; IC, immunocompetent; ICP, intracranial pressure; IS, immunosuppressed; PNG, Papua New Guinea.

  • TABLE 5

    Major clinical studies reporting antifungal susceptibility testing of Cryptococcus gattii against fluconazole c

    ReferenceOrigin(s) of isolatesTotal no. of isolatesSource (no.) of isolatesModal MIC (mg/liter) a MIC90 (mg/liter)GM MIC (mg/liter)MIC range (mg/liter)% of isolates with MIC ≥ 32 mg/literDescription
    29 Australia18C416NS0.5–6411Primarily VGI isolates
    75 Taiwan21C816NS0.125–160 C. gattii was less susceptible to AMB and 5FC than C. neoformans; all C. gattii isolates were FLU susceptible
    403 South America11CNSNSNS8–160High degree of susceptibility to AMB, 5FC, FLU, ITC
    370 Spain57C (52)NS329.541–64NS C. gattii was less susceptible than C. neoformans to FLU but not AMB and 5FC
    E (5)
    368 Spain30C (mainly)NSNS0.7–10.25–20Overall low-level resistance; MICs for FLU were higher for C. gattii than for C. neoformans (P = 0.007)
    404 Brazil23CNS25.615.524–>64NSAll strains had low MICs of AMB (0.03–0.25 mg/liter); among azoles, POS had greatest activity, followed by VOR, ITC, and FLU
    366 USA35C (NS)NS0.0640.030.03–0.060Highly susceptible to isavuconazole
    E (NS) 0.060.0270.015–0.250
    363 Worldwide42C (NS)NS42.360.25–64 Few differences in susceptibility between C. gattii and C. neoformans
    E (NS)
    371 USA43C4166.380.5–320.05VGII molecular type strains, especially those of VGIIc, had highest FLU MICs
    375 Australia, USA, Canada45C (NS) and E (NS); study INS83.541–80 C. gattii less susceptible than C. neoformans; strains of the VGII molecular type had significantly higher MICs for 5FC and all azoles, especially FLU
    103Extended studyNS84.961–32NS
    373 Worldwide350C (215)NS83.5730.25–64NSVeterinary isolates were least susceptible to ITC, POS, VRC, and ISA; MICs varied with molecular type for FLU and 5FC
    367 India62C (2) 1.91.551–160VGI; C. gattii less susceptible than C. neoformans to FLU, ITC, and VRC but not AMB and 5FC; E was less susceptible than C and more resistant than C
    E (60)NS88 0
    405 Brazil13CNSNSNS16–>6415VGII molecular type studied
    372 Brazil49C (43) and E (6); VGII 166.080.25–>64NSVGII molecular type strains less susceptible to FLU, VRC, and 5FC than VGI strains
    VGI 41.551–80
    359 Global298C and E (NS)8165.510.5–3220Molecular type VGII strains had the highest FLU GM MICs, and molecular type VGI had the lowest (8.6 vs 1.7 mg/liter)
    406 Brazil54C (50)NS16NS1–64NSMainly molecular type VGII strains
    E (4)
    369 Brazil8CNS3213.458–320Susceptible to most drugs; no differences in susceptibility between C. neoformans and C. gattii; ECV = 32 mg/liter
    374 Canada, USA90C (75)484.52–64NSMolecular type VGII studied, of which types IIb and IIc were less susceptible
    E (15)
    376 b Brazil24NS≤14NS<0.12–3233 isolates with MIC of 32 mg/liter; no molecular type stated
    • ↵a In some instances, calculated by the authors.

    • ↵b Measured by flow cytometry.

    • ↵c Abbreviations: AMB, amphotericin B; C, clinical strains; E, environmental; 5FC, 5-flucytosine; FLU, fluconazole; GM, geometric mean; ITC, itraconazole; ISA, isavuconazole; POS, posaconazole; NS, not specified; VRC, voriconazole.

PreviousNext
Back to top
Download PDF
Citation Tools
Cryptococcus gattii Infections
Sharon C.-A. Chen, Wieland Meyer, Tania C. Sorrell
Clinical Microbiology Reviews Oct 2014, 27 (4) 980-1024; DOI: 10.1128/CMR.00126-13

Citation Manager Formats

  • BibTeX
  • Bookends
  • EasyBib
  • EndNote (tagged)
  • EndNote 8 (xml)
  • Medlars
  • Mendeley
  • Papers
  • RefWorks Tagged
  • Ref Manager
  • RIS
  • Zotero
Print

Alerts
Sign In to Email Alerts with your Email Address
Email

Thank you for sharing this Clinical Microbiology Reviews article.

NOTE: We request your email address only to inform the recipient that it was you who recommended this article, and that it is not junk mail. We do not retain these email addresses.

Enter multiple addresses on separate lines or separate them with commas.
Cryptococcus gattii Infections
(Your Name) has forwarded a page to you from Clinical Microbiology Reviews
(Your Name) thought you would be interested in this article in Clinical Microbiology Reviews.
CAPTCHA
This question is for testing whether or not you are a human visitor and to prevent automated spam submissions.
Share
Cryptococcus gattii Infections
Sharon C.-A. Chen, Wieland Meyer, Tania C. Sorrell
Clinical Microbiology Reviews Oct 2014, 27 (4) 980-1024; DOI: 10.1128/CMR.00126-13
del.icio.us logo Digg logo Reddit logo Twitter logo CiteULike logo Facebook logo Google logo Mendeley logo
  • Top
  • Article
    • SUMMARY
    • INTRODUCTION
    • TAXONOMY OF THE SPECIES C. GATTII
    • EPIDEMIOLOGY, ORIGIN, AND EVOLUTION
    • ECOLOGY
    • PATHOGENESIS
    • C. GATTII INFECTION IN ANIMALS
    • CLINICAL EPIDEMIOLOGY OF HUMAN INFECTION
    • CLINICAL MANIFESTATIONS OF HUMAN INFECTION
    • CLINICAL COMPLICATIONS OF HUMAN INFECTION
    • DIAGNOSTICS
    • ANTIFUNGAL SUSCEPTIBILITY
    • ANTIFUNGAL THERAPY AND MANAGEMENT
    • CONCLUSIONS
    • ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
    • REFERENCES
    • Author Bios
  • Figures & Data
  • Info & Metrics
  • PDF

Related Articles

Cited By...

About

  • About CMR
  • Editor in Chief
  • Editorial Board
  • Policies
  • For the Media
  • For Librarians
  • For Advertisers
  • Alerts
  • RSS
  • FAQ
  • Permissions
  • Journal Announcements

Authors

  • ASM Author Center
  • Submit a Manuscript
  • Ethics
  • Contact Us

Follow #ClinMicroRev

@ASMicrobiology

       

ASM Journals

ASM journals are the most prominent publications in the field, delivering up-to-date and authoritative coverage of both basic and clinical microbiology.

About ASM | Contact Us | Press Room

 

ASM is a member of

Scientific Society Publisher Alliance

 

American Society for Microbiology
1752 N St. NW
Washington, DC 20036
Phone: (202) 737-3600

Copyright © 2021 American Society for Microbiology | Privacy Policy | Website feedback

Print ISSN: 0893-8512; Online ISSN: 1098-6618